Detailed Contents of
Chemistry in Context - 5th Edition

(The numbers in italics refer to the page numbers of the textbook)

1 Atoms, Atomic Masses and Moles 1

1.1 Atoms and molecules 1
1.2 Comparing the masses of atoms 2
1.3 Relative atomic masses - the relative atomic mass scale 4
1.4 The Avogadro constant, moles and molar masses 5
1.5 Empirical formulas and molecular formulas 6
1.6 Solutions and moles 7

2 Reacting Quantities and Equations 10

2.1 What is an equation? 10
2.2 Relative numbers of moles of reactants and products 10
2.3 Equations for reactions involving acids and bases 11
2.4 Equations for reactions involving gases 12
2.5 Reacting volumes of gases 13
2.6 Predicting and writing equations 14
2.7 What do equations tell us? 15
2.8 Ionic equations 17
2.9 Writing ionic equations 18

3 Redox 20

3.1 Introduction 20
3.2 Redoc processes in terms of electron transfer 20
3.3 Electron transfer in redox reactions 21
3.4 Balancing redox reactions 23
3.5 Electrolysis 24
3.6 Explaining electrolysis 25
3.7 The Faraday constant: How much charge is needed to deposit one mole of copper during electrolysis? 27
3.8 Important types of redox reaction 28
3.9 Oxidation number 29
3.10 Explaining redox in terms of oxidation number 31
3.11 The advantages and disadvantages of the oxidation number concept 31

4 Patterns and Periodicity 35

4.1 Introduction 35
4.2 Families of similar elements 35
4.3 Patterns and periodicity 36
4.4 Modern forms of the periodic table 38
4.5 Metals, non-metals and metalloids 41
4.6 Periodic properties 42
4.7 The periodicity of physical properties 42
4.8 Relating the properties of elements to their structure 45
4.9 The periodicity of chemical properties 47
4.10 Periodicity in the structure and properties of chloride 48

5 Atomic Structure 52

5.1 Introduction 52
5.2 Evidence for atomic structure 52
5.3 Sub-atomic particles 60
5.4 Isotopes 60
5.5 Mass numbers, relative isotopic masses and relative atomic masses 61

6 Electronic Structure 64

6.1 Evidence for the electronic structure of atoms 64
6.2 Obtaining ionisation energies from emission spectra 64
6.3 Using ionisation energies to predict electronic structures - evidence for shells 67
6.4 How are the electrons arranged in larger atoms? 68
6.5 Evidence for sub-shells of electrons 70
6.6 Electrons and orbitals 72
6.7 Electronic structures and the periodic table 73

7 Nuclear Structure and Radioactivity 76

7.1 Introduction 76
7.2 Alpha-particles, beta-particles and gamma-rays 76
7.3 Nuclear equations 78
7.4 Stable and unstable isotopes 79
7.5 Using radioactive isotopes 80

8 The Electronic Theory and Chemical Bonding 83

8.1 Introduction 83
8.2 Transfer of electrons - electrovalent (ionic) bonding 84
8.3 Factors influencing the formation of ions 85
8.4 Sharing electrons - covalent bonding 86
8.5 Co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding 88
8.6 The shapes of simple molecules 90
8.7 Delocalisation of electrons 92

9 Intermolecular Forces 96

9.1 Polar and non-polar molecules 96
9.2 Electronegativity, polarity and bonding 97
9.3 Intermolecular forces 99
9.4 How do Van der Waals forces arise? 102
9.5 Hydrogen bonding 103
9.6 What is a hydrogen bond? 104
9.7 Estimating the strength of hydrogen bonds in water 105
9.8 The influence and importance of hydrogen bonding 106

10 Structure, Bonding and Properties - The Solid State        115

10.1 Introduction 115
10.2 Evidence for the structure of materials 115
10.3 Electron density maps 118
10.4 Giant metallic structures 119
10.5 The properties of metals 121
10.6 Giant molecular (giant covalent) structures 123
10.7 Giant ionic structures 124
10.8 The properties of ionic crystals 126
10.9 Determining the Avogadro constant from X-ray studies 128
10.10 Sand and silicates - more giant structures 129
10.11 Simple molecular structures 130
10.12 Comparing typical solid structures 131

11 The Gaseous State 135

11.1 Evidence for moving particles 135
11.2 Examining the Brownian Motion of smoke particles in air 135
11.3 The Kinetic Theory of Matter 136
11.4 Comparing solids, liquids and gases 137
11.5 Molar volumes of gases 137
11.6 Important gas laws and the Ideal Gas Equation 139
11.7 Investigating the distribution of molecular speeds in gases - the Zartmann experiment 140
11.8 Determining the relative molar masses of gases and volatile liquids 143

12 Energy Changes and Bonding 146

12.1 Energy and energy changes 146
12.2 The ideas and language of thermochemistry 146
12.3 The standard conditions for thermochemical
measurements 148
12.4 Standard enthalpy changes of formation and combustion 148
12.5 Measuring standard enthalpy changes of formation 150
12.6 Using standard enthalpy changes of formation to calculate the energy changes in reactions 152
12.7 Using standard enthalply changes of formation to predict the relative stabilities of compounds 153
12.8 Predicting whether reactions will occur 154
12.9 Enthalpy changes of combustion and molecular structure 155
12.10 Finding the strength of the C-H bond and the C-C bond 157
12.11 What are the uses of bond energies 158
12.12 Energy changes in forming ionic substances 160
12.13 Theoretical values for lattice enthalpies - the ionic model 162
12.14 Solution, hydration and lattice enthalpies 162
12.15 Energy sources for the future 164

13 Patterns Across the Periodic Table 169

13.1 Periodic properties 169
13.2 Atomic structure and the periodic table 170
13.3 Atomic properties and the periodic table 170
13.4 Physical properties and the periodic table 176
13.5 Patterns in the formulas of compounds 177
13.6 Patterns in the properties of chlorides 179
13.7 Patterns in the properties of oxides 180

14 Competition Processes 186

14.1 Fundamental reactions in inorganic chemistry 186
14.2 Redox: competition for electrons 187
14.3 Standard electrode potentials 190
14.4 Measuring standard electrode potentials 191
14.5 Relative strengths of oxidising agents and
reducing agents 192
14.6 The uses of standard electrode potentials 193
14.7 Commercial cells 196
14.8 Acids and bases 198
14.9 The Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases 199
14.10 Relative strengths of acids and bases 200
14.11 Acid-base reactions: competition for protons 200
14.12 Complex ions 201
14.13 Naming complex ions 202
14.14 Polydentate ligands and chelation 202
14.15 Complexing: competition for cations 203
14.16 Investigating the formulas of complex ions 204
14.17 The use and importance of complex ions 205
14.18 Titrations - determining amounts and concentrations 207

15 Groups I & II - The Akali Metals & the Alkaline -Earth        Metals 211

15.1 Introduction 211
15.2 Oxidation numbers and s-block elements 211
15.3 Physical properties 212
15.4 Chemical properties 213
15.5 Thermal stability of compounds 213
15.6 The solubility of compounds 215
15.7 Occurrence of the s-block elements 215
15.8 Manufacture of the s-block elements 217
15.9 Uses of the s-block elements and their compounds 219

16 Group VII - The Halogens 224

16.1 Introduction 224
16.2 Sources of the halogens 224
16.3 Obtaining the halogens 225
16.4 Structure and properties of the halogens 227
16.5 Chemical properties of the halogens 228
16.6 The halogens as oxidising agents 230
16.7 The reactions of halogens with water 231
16.8 The reactions of halogens with alkalis 231
16.9 Reactions of halide ions 233
16.10 Uses of the halogens 235

17 Group IV - Carbon to Lead, Non-Metal to Metal 239

17.1 Introduction 239
17.2 Variation in the physical properties of the elements 241
17.3 Variation in the chemical properties of the elements 242
17.4 General features of the compounds 243

18 The Transition Metals 249

18.1 Introduction 249
18.2 Ions of the transition metals 250
18.3 What is a transition element 251
18.4 Trends across the period of transition metals 251
18.5 General properties of the first transition series (Sc to Zn) 253
18.6 Characteristic properties of transition metals and their compounds 254

19 Metals and the Activity Series 265

19.1 Iron - a typical transition metal 265
19.2 The occurrence of iron 265
19.3 The manufacture of iron 265
19.4 The conversion of iron into steel 267
19.5 The reactions of iron and its aqueous ions 269
19.6 The corrosion of iron and its prevention 271
19.7 Copper - extraction and manufacture 273
19.8 The properties and uses of copper 274
19.9 Aluminium - extraction and manufacture 274
19.10 The properties and uses of aluminium 276
19.11 The reactions of metals and the activity series 277
19.12 The extraction of metals from the ores 277
19.13 Factors influencing the choice of method used to reduce a metal ore 281
19.14 Metal extractions and the electrochemical series 282
19.15 Identifying cations 283
19.16 Recycling 286

20 Equilibria 289

20.1 Introduction 289
20.2 Equilibria in physical processes 290
20.3 Characteristic features of a dynamic equilibrium 292
20.4 Equilibria in chemical reactions 292
20.5 The equilibrium of a solute between two immiscible solvents - the partition coefficient 294
20.6 Solvent extraction 296
20.7 The equilibrium constant 296
20.8 The equilibrium law 298
20.9 Equilibrium constants in gaseous systems 301
20.10 Heterogenous equilibria 302

21 Factors Affecting Equilibria 305

21.1 The effect of concentration changes on equilibria 305
21.2 The effect of pressure changes on equilibria 307
21.3 The effect of catalysts on equilibria 308
21.4 The effect of temperature changes on equilibria 308
21.5 Applying the principles of reaction rates and equilibria to industrial processes 310
21.6 From ammonia to nitric acid 315
21.7 Fertilisers and explosives from nitric acid 316

22 Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Solution 320

22.1 Introduction 320
22.2 The solubility of sparingly soluble ionic solids in water 320
22.3 Limitations to the solubility product concept 322
22.4 Using the solubility concept 322
22.5 The strengths of acids and bases 325
22.6 The dissociation of water 326
22.7 The pH scale 326
22.8 The measurement of hydrogen ion concentration and pH 327
22.9 Dissociation constants of acids and bases 329
22.10 Acid-base indicators 331
22.11 PH changes during titration 333
22.12 Buffer solutions 334

23 Entropy and Free Energy 339

23.1 Introduction 339
23.2 A simple example - the diffusion of gases 339
23.3 Entropy 340
23.4 Entropy changes 344
23.5 Entropy changes and free energy changes 346
23.6 Free energy, electrode potentials and equilibrium constants 349
23.7 A final point 350

24 Reaction Rates 352

24.1 Introduction 352
24.2 The concept of reaction rate 353
24.3 Factors affecting the rate of a reaction 354
24.4 Measuring reaction rates 356
24.5 Investigating the effect of concentration on the rate of a reaction 358
24.6 Order of reaction and rate equations 360
24.7 The half-life for a first-order reaction and for radioactive decay 363
24.8 Investigating the effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction 365
24.9 Explaining the increase in reaction rate with temperature - the collision theory 366
24.10 Catalysis 369
24.11 The importance of reaction rate studies 373

25 Introduction to Carbon Chemistry 378

25.1 Carbon - a unique element 378
25.2 Organic chemistry 379
25.3 Functional groups 380
25.4 Finding the formulas of organic compounds 381
25.5 Instrumental methods of analysis 382
25.6 Spectroscopy 384
25.7 Writing structural formulas 390
25.8 Isomerism 391

26 Petroleum and Alkanes 397

26.1 Crude oil 397
26.2 The composition of crude oil 399
26.3 Naming alkanes 400
26.4 Physical properties of alkanes 402
26.5 Reaction mechanism in organic chemistry 403
26.6 Reactivity of alkanes 407
26.7 Important reactions of alkanes 408
26.8 The environmental impact of motor vehicle fuels 411
26.9 Cycloalkanes 414

27 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 418

27.1 Why alkenes are important 418
27.2 Naming alkenes 418
27.3 The nature of the double bond 419
27.4 Cis-trans isomerism 420
27.5 Mechanism of addition to a double bond 421
27.6 Important reactions to alkenes 421
27.7 Polymers 426
27.8 Addition polymerisation 428
27.9 Rubber - a natural addition polymer 431
27.10 Alkynes 432

28 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 436

28.1 Aromatic hydrocarbons 436
28.2 The structure of benzene 436
28.3 Naming aromatic compounds 438
28.4 The importance of benzene 440
28.5 Chemical characteristics of benzene 440
28.6 Mechanism of substitution reactions of benzene 441
28.7 Mechanism of substitution reactions of benzene 442
28.8 Important electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene 445
28.9 Other arenes 446
28.10 Position of substitution in benzene derivatives 448

29 Organic Halogen Compounds 452

29.1 Anaesthetics 452
29.2 Naming halogen compounds 453
29.3 The nature of the carbon-halogen bond 453
29.4 Nucleophilic substitution 456
29.5 Important substitution reactions of halogenoalkanes 459
29.6 Elimination reactions 462
29.7 Acyl halides 462

30 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 466

30.1 Fermentation 466
30.2 Naming alcohols 467
30.3 Alcohols as a homologous series 468
30.4 The amphoteric nature of hydroxy compounds 469
30.5 Reactions involving cleaving of the O-H bond 470
30.6 Reactions involving cleaving of C-O bond 472
30.7 Reactions involving the carbon skeleton 473
30.8 Substitution reactions of the aromatic ring in phenol 476
30.9 Ethers 478

31 Carbonyl Compounds 482

31.1 The carbonyl group 482
31.2 Aldehydes and ketones - nature and naming 483
31.3 Addition reactions of carbonyl compounds 484
31.4 Condensation reactions of carbonyl compounds 487
31.5 Oxidation of carbonyl compounds 487
31.6 Effect of the carbonyl group on neighbouring atoms 489
31.7 Sugars - naturally occurring carbonyl compounds 490
31.8 Starch 492

32 Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives 498

32.1 Carboxylic acids 498
32.2 The carboxyl group and acidity 500
32.3 Salts of carboxylic acids 501
32.4 Some important reactions of carboxylic acids 504
32.5 Esters 505
32.6 Fats 509
32.7 Acid anhydrides 510

33 Organic Nitrogen Compounds 515

33.1 Dyestuffs and the development of the organic chemical industry 515
33.2 Important organic nitrogen compounds 516
33.3 The nature and occurrence of amines 517
33.4 Making amines 518
33.5 Amines as bases 519
33.6 Other reactions of amines 520
33.7 Diazonium salts 522
33.8 Amino acids and proteins 524
33.9 Synthetic fibres and nylon 525

34 Synthetic Routes for Organic Chemicals 530

34.1 Introduction 530
34.2 Starting materials for synthesis 530
34.3 Ascending and descending a homologous series 530
34.4 Synthetic routes for aromatic compounds 532
34.5 Reaction yield 532

Table of relative atomic masses 535

The modern periodic table (wide form) 536

Assessment questions 537

Answers to assessment questions 572

Answers to review questions 574

Index 605

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